Evaluating Neuroplasticity within the Brain in Response to Learning New Skills.

 

 Evaluating Neuroplasticity within the Brain in Response to Learning New Skills.

Learning a new skill can improve working memory and boost cognitive skills. Learning can be beneficial as it can enrich an individual’s skill set and improve how the brain processes and stores information (Gathercole et al., 2019). Most learning takes place in childhood, but adults also need to learn new skills. It was thought that only children can learn, but research has now shown that the brain can continue to adapt and learn throughout a human lifespan (Chen & Goodwill, 2022). The brain develops and adapts to humans’ needs. Its job is to process information from the internal and external environment and make decisions and responses accordingly (Zhang, 2020). This assignment will look at the process of neuroplasticity, defining what it is, the difference between how adults and children learn and explore how new skills can be learnt and how the brain responds to learning these skills. It will then go on to look at how the brain develops new skills such as learning a musical instrument and acquiring a second language.

Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity, is defined as changes in the nervous system in response to stimuli by reorganizing functions, connections, or structure (Papatzikis et al., 2023). Neurons have the role to modify efficiency of synaptic transmissions, this is referred to as synaptic plasticity (Appelbaum et al., 2023). This is a process of synapses having the ability to change and strengthen over time (Appelbaum et al., 2023). Synaptic plasticity has contributed to recovery from brain lesions, homeostasis, and brain development (Mateos-Aparicio et al., 2019). Neuroplasticity can happen by the change in brain structure, this is called neuron morphology (Ojeda & Ávila, 2019). The brain can grow new neurons, this is defined as neurogenesis (Mateos-Aparicio et al., 2019). Rewiring of the brain can also occur by making changes to neuronal network connections (Rentzeperis et al., 2022). Neuroplasticity can be seen by using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Bonetto et al., 2021). These provide a non-invasive neuroimaging technique that shows evidence of brain network reorganization (Chen & Goodwill, 2022). Neuroplasticity can shape the structure and function of the brain when having external experiences and as it responds to effects of the environment (Kumar et al., 2023). Experiments have shown that after training the brain cortical representations change. This structural reorganization can prove how individuals learn (Zhang, 2020).

Neuroplasticity is essential for the brain to grow and learn new skills and contributes to evolution in humans (Fleming & Rubinsztein, 2020). It helps the nervous system to adapt to environments, experiences, and physiological changes allowing individuals to optimize their full functional performance and potential (Wenger & Kühn, 2021). The developing brain begins as a structureless network of nerve cells which can flexibly wire and rearrange themselves together to fit what is required of the environment the individual is in at that specific time (Wenger & Kühn, 2021).

Neurobiological changes can occur over a human lifetime as a result of experiential and environmental factors such as education, cognitive stimulation, physical activity, diet, and social engagement which have been shown to cause the brain to rewire (Chen & Goodwill, 2022). Functional, structural, and chemical adaptations to the brain can be beneficial, for example in restoration after brain injury. These adaptations can also be neutral with no change or negative which can have pathological consequences (Puderbaugh & Emmady, 2023). As the brain continues to be studied, more information is becoming available about what influences the functional connections. This allows experts to gain development of knowledge, so can make therapies more suitable and efficient and allow quicker results and recovery (Puderbaugh & Emmady, 2023).

Evidence shows that adults learn differently from children and adolescence (Chen & Goodwill, 2022). Neuroimaging advances have been able to demonstrate brain development throughout childhood and adolescence and shows that plasticity of the brain is at its peak during childhood, and it reduces with age which makes it harder for adults to learn as learning requires constant use of neuroplasticity in the brain (Wenger & Kühn, 2021). Neuroplasticity is increased whilst the body is undergoing substantial growth and development. The brain has more ability to adapt functionally and structurally during this period, making it easier for children and adolescents to learn (Weyandt et al., 2020). The first 5 years of life is the most optimal period for learning and acquiring new skills as the brain is always encountering environmental stimuli, forming, and reforming neural pathways (Papatzikis & Rishony, 2022). This ability decreases with ageing and is much less effective during adulthood (Weyandt et al., 2020).

There are negative sides to neuroplasticity. The brain needs stability to be operational and remember and use the functions that have been learned (Wenger & Kühn, 2021).  Neuroplasticity in the brain also has a high metabolic cost in comparison to stability and therefore as the brain accumulates damage through ageing or injury, its ability to change becomes limited (Mattson et al., 2018). Mental health illnesses like depression can make changes in neuroplasticity which can cause negative emotional rumination and the learning of fear (Ho & King, 2021). Disruption in neuroprocessing can be shown in depressed individuals (Ho & King, 2021). Conditions such as depression can cause the individual to perceive their environment in a negative manner in synaptic reorganization (Rădulescu et al., 2021). This may not provide adequate adjustments to a situation or environment which can lead to psychiatric symptoms (Rădulescu et al., 2021). This can have a negative effect resulting in feelings such as sadness as the activity in the parietal cortex decreases and the activity in the anterior insula is increased. This is because dysregulation in the neurological pathways can lead to response in negative stimuli (Ho & King, 2021). Emotional processing may not work effectively when an individual has depression as emotional regulation may be diverted into the region that is responsible for pain processing, this is called the dorsal insula (Albert, 2019). This results in emotional dysfunction in depressed individuals (Rădulescu et al., 2021). Kaczmarek (2020) observed neuroplasticity by looking at the brains of patients that were being treated for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). A position emission tomography scan was used to show that carefully planned treatments like art therapy and repeating actions can affect the caudate, orbital frontal cortex and cingulate gyrus (Kaczmarek, 2020). This strengthens the neuron connections that control the actions performance leading to a decrease in the abnormally high hyperactivity of the brain structures linked to OCD (Kaczmarek, 2020).

It has been found that brain plasticity can be increased through medication which can be used to help influence the brain’s healing (Kaczmarek, 2020). An example of this is the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine which are used to help guide the brain back to a healthy state (Albert, 2019). SSRIs work by changing effects of neuroplasticity and reversing changes that are found in the brain of a depressed patient (Ho & King, 2021). Their use can override the negative neuroplasticity that is caused by depression and help the brain strengthen functional connectivities and promote neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Research is being used to continually improve the effectiveness of SSRIs (Puderbaugh & Emmady, 2023). Patients should benefit from taking SSRIs and have a better quality of life (Rădulescu et al., 2021). These studies show that the brain is able to learn new skills and strategies to help with mental health illnesses and medications can help with the process.

Research has shown that neuroplasticity declines as an individual ages (Chen et al., 2020). Therefore, interventions which promote neurogenesis, the growth and development of the neurons in the brain, promotes the prevention or treatment of diseases such as dementia and strokes (Bonfanti & Charvet, 2021). These interventions include making lifestyle changes to enhance cognition and maintain healthy brain function (Bonfanti & Charvet, 2021). Studies have shown that reducing stress and getting a regular amount of sleep helps improve memory, cognition, and attention span (Kapsi et al., 2020). Exercise has been shown to improve processing speed and memory. Having a healthy diet has also been shown to trigger neuroplasticity and positive developments in the brain (Ekstrand et al., 2021). Music has been shown to positively influence neuroplasticity to improve cognitive and executive functions in the brain (Puderbaugh & Emmady, 2023).

Learning new skills has been shown to promote neuroplasticity by reducing stress hormones, blood pressure, and increasing competency and synaptic plasticity (Melita, 2023). Learning a specific new skill normally takes years of dedicated time and practice as the internal and external stimuli promote neuroplasticity changes to the structure of the grey and white brain matter and functional changes in the brain (Olszewska et al., 2021), (Bonetto et al., 2021). Structural changes have been observed in humans throughout the lifespan when they are learning new skills, for example following intensive studying, musical experience, video game playing and juggling (Wenger & Kühn, 2021). A study by Lacoangeli, (2022) found that neural adaptations occur when learning and acquiring new motor skills. This is followed by the consolidation phase where there is an increase in activity and connectivity caused by improved efficiency in the circuitry of the brain (Bonetto et al., 2021). Once the skill has been learnt for a period of time, fewer changes are needed as the individual slowly improves and neuroplasticity has formed (Gathercole et al., 2019). This makes it easier to improve on more complex parts of the skill as a base has been created (Iacoangeli, 2022). Long-term neural adaptations involve a fixed knowledge known as cementing (Iacoangeli, 2022). It becomes stable and the new normal. It is fixed and does not change much, meaning you have accumulated knowledge and will be easier to retain (Olszewska et al., 2021). This happens in the novel circuitry that involves brain regions such as the cerebellum, motor cortical regions (Iacoangeli, 2022).

Evidence shows that music is not just a pleasurable experience, it has been linked with shaping essential evolutionary and adaptive functions (Vuust, 2022). Evidence shows that learning to play music is related to stimulation of neurons and executive functions in the prefrontal cortex (Mansouri et al., 2017). Since brain imaging has emerged, music has started to be incorporated into cognitive neuroscience (Zhang,2020). To learn a musical instrument, it takes a combination of higher order cognitive functions and multiple sensory modalities as it is a complex task. Learning a musical instrument helps shape brain structure and brain function (Vuust, 2022). It is an enjoyable experience and effective to humans physically and emotionally. Humans respond to music by physically moving or feeling it emotionally, this makes music a meaningful activity (Vuust, 2022). Increased brain activation in the auditory and motor systems are potential predictors of successfully learning music. Behavior flexibility is required as there is a constant change in the environment, training and practicing and learning new knowledge and skills (Olszewska et al., 2021). The brain will adapt its functions to perform a skill that is new, also known as neuroplasticity. This will include changes in cell shape and size, myelination, synaptic strength, and neurogenesis (Olszewska et al., 2021). The auditory premotor parietal network changes when being engaged in learning a musical instrument as well as changes in the cerebellum, providing evidence that neuroplasticity occurs in musical training (Olszewska et al., 2021).

The auditory cortex monitors and recognizes the brain’s activities such as auditory and memory (Frolovet al., 2020). Research shows that musicians are sensitive to piano sounds, this could be because their auditory cortical activity area enhances when they hear a piano (Zhang,2020). Children under the age of 9 who are playing a musical instrument have the largest area of auditory cortex activity (Putkinen et al., 2019).  Musicians have a 5% larger cerebellum than non-musicians, this could suggest that the finger movements promoted nerve growth (Zhang,2020). Individuals who learnt how to play a musical instrument before 12 years old had better verbal memory (Guo et al, 2021). Children have a better neuroplastic window so learning a musical instrument early would be more beneficial and easier. (Putkinen et al., 2019).

Learning a musical instrument can be beneficial to older adults as it can improve their brain connections as it requires attention, memory storage, retrieval, emotion, and fine motor control (Guo et al., 2021). Studies show that this can preserve the chance of developing dementia (Guo et al., 2021). Music programs for older adults can also improve neural efficiency, verbal memory, social connections and emotional communication (Guo et al., 2021). Vuust (2022) showed learning a musical instrument can help psychological and psychological well-being assisting in regulating behaviour and in the development of language, verbal intelligence, vocabulary skills, reading and communication skills. Emotional regulation is essential for children’s communication skills, it can be utilized as a joint musical activity in educational programs in order to make a significant change and merge the two together (Papatzikis & Rishony, 2022).

Neuroimaging methods can be used to look at neuro plasticity and help solidify neurocognitive studies. Electroencephalography, magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography are examples of neuroimaging technology (Isel, 2021). Such machinery has discovered that learning a second language changes the anatomy in the brain and is thought to be mediated by functional rather than structural changes. The brain has increased grey matter and increased cortical thickness (Isel, 2021). Observation shows that the brain is malleable enough to act quickly and continuously when learning a new language and responding to cognitive demands (Isel, 2021).

The human brain has great abilities including the ability to learn more than one language. Neuroplasticity is a part of the process of language acquisition and the process of learning (Hamayousuf, 2022). Second language acquisition is linked to greater cognitive reserve, changes in the brain structure and function and greater executive control than to individuals who are monolinguals (Ware et al., 2021). Children can more easily become fluent in a second language and acquire the relevant listening and speaking skills subconsciously. Children’s brains are adaptable and can deal with the challenges of speaking multiple languages, they can learn this as easily as crawling and walking (Hamayousuf, 2022). It takes adults longer because neuroplasticity decreases as an individual’s age increases (Frolov et al., 2020) Adults will need more effort to learn a new language, but it is not impossible to do as all humans with exemption of some disabilities, are able to acquire a second language (Hamayousuf, 2022). Research shows that bilinguals have more attentional switching, working memory and increased functional connectivity (Ware et al., 2021). Neuroimage studies have reported bilinguals have greater gray matter volume in the brain as well as in the anterior temporal lobe and in the left inferior temporal gyrus than those who are monolingual (Ware et al., 2021).

With neuroimaging technology, it is now possible to see how learning a new skill such as learning a musical instrument and acquiring a second language creates changes in the brain and further studies have deepened understanding and the value of neuroplasticity. Children’s brains have been shown to be more malleable than adults. There are negative sides to neuroplasticity, for example in individuals who have depression, however there are ways our brain can adapt with medications and lifestyle changes to form positive neuroplasticity. With further research of human development and neuroplasticity through neuroimaging technologies, professionals can understand, treat, and develop deeper meaning of neuroplasticity.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  

 

References

Appelbaum, L. G., Shenasa, M. A., Stolz, L., & Daskalakis, Z. (2023). Synaptic plasticity and mental health: Methods, challenges and opportunities. Neuropsychopharmacology, 48(1), 113-120. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-022-01370-w

Albert, P. R. (2019). Adult neuroplasticity: A new “cure” for major depression? Journal of psychiatry & neuroscience, 44(3), 147. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01639-6

Bonetto, G., Belin, D., & Káradóttir, R. T. (2021). Myelin: A gatekeeper of activity-dependent circuit plasticity?. Science, 374(6569), eaba6905. DOI: 10.1126/science.aba6905

Bonfanti, L., & Charvet, C. J. (2021). Brain plasticity in humans and model systems: advances, challenges, and future directions. International journal of molecular sciences, 22(17), 9358. doi: 10.3390/ijms22179358

Chen, S. A., & Goodwill, A. M. (2022). Neuroplasticity and Adult Learning. In Third International Handbook of Lifelong Learning (pp. 1-19). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-67930-9_43-1

Chen, Q., Yang, H., Rooks, B., Anthony, M., Zhang, Z., Tadin, D., Heffner, K.L. & Lin, F. V. (2020). Autonomic flexibility reflects learning and associated neuroplasticity in old age. Human brain mapping, 41(13), 3608-3619. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25034

Ekstrand, B., Scheers, N., Rasmussen, M. K., Young, J. F., Ross, A. B., & Landberg, R. (2021). Brain foods-the role of diet in brain performance and health. Nutrition reviews, 79(6), 693-708. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuaa091

Fleming, A., & Rubinsztein, D. C. (2020). Autophagy in neuronal development and plasticity. Trends in neurosciences, 43(10), 767-779. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2020.07.003

Frolov, Nikita S., Elena N. Pitsik, Vladimir A. Maksimenko, Vadim V. Grubov, Anton R. Kiselev, Zhen Wang, and Alexander E. Hramov. "Age-related slowing down in the motor initiation in elderly adults." Plos one 15, no. 9 (2020): e0233942. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233942

Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019). Working memory training involves learning new skills. Journal of memory and language, 105, 19-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003

Guo, X., Yamashita, M., Suzuki, M., Ohsawa, C., Asano, K., Abe, N.,  Soshi, T. & Sekiyama, K. (2021). Musical instrument training program improves verbal memory and neural efficiency in novice older adults. Human Brain Mapping, 42(5), 1359-1375. DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25298

Hamayousuf, K. F. (2022).  Brain Plasticity and Second Language Acquisition. University of Suliamani.

Ho, T. C., & King, L. S. (2021). Mechanisms of neuroplasticity linking early adversity to depression: developmental considerations. Translational psychiatry, 11(1), 517.

Iacoangeli, F. (2022). Evaluating The Relationship Between Short-and Long-Term Neural Adaptations to Motor Skill Acquisition and Retention. NeuroSports, 2(1), 1.

Isel, F. (2021). Neuroplasticity of second language vocabulary acquisition: The role of linguistic experience in individual learning. Language, Interaction and Acquisition, 12(1), 54-81. https://doi.org/10.1075/lia.20023.ise

Kaczmarek, B. L. (2020). Current views on neuroplasticity: what is new and what is old?. Acta Neuropsychologica, 18, 1-14.

Kapsi, S., Katsantoni, S., & Drigas, A. (2020). The Role of Sleep and Impact on Brain and Learning. Int. J. Recent Contributions Eng. Sci. IT, 8(3), 59-68. DOI:10.3991/ijes.v8i3.17099 

Kumar, J., Patel, T., Sugandh, F., Dev, J., Kumar, U., Adeeb, M., ... & shah Syed, A. R. (2023). Innovative Approaches and Therapies to Enhance Neuroplasticity and Promote Recovery in Patients With Neurological Disorders: A Narrative Review. Cureus, 15(7). DOI 10.7759/cureus.41914

Mansouri, F. A., Acevedo, N., Illipparampil, R., Fehring, D. J., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Jaberzadeh, S. (2017). Interactive effects of music and prefrontal cortex stimulation in modulating response inhibition. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 18096. DOI:10.1038/s41598-017-18119-x

Mateos-Aparicio, P., & Rodríguez-Moreno, A. (2019). The impact of studying brain plasticity. Frontiers in cellular neuroscience, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2019.00066

Mattson, M. P., Moehl, K., Ghena, N., Schmaedick, M., & Cheng, A. (2018). Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 19(2), 81-94.

Melita, N. (2023). Emotional intelligence, distancing, and learning a new skill as strategies to combat the deleterious effects of emotional labor on attorney wellbeing. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 17, 1221145. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1221145

Ojeda, J., & Ávila, A. (2019). Early actions of neurotransmitters during cortex development and maturation of reprogrammed neurons. Frontiers in Synaptic Neuroscience, 11, 33. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsyn.2019.00033

Olszewska, A. M., Gaca, M., Herman, A. M., Jednoróg, K., & Marchewka, A. (2021). How musical training shapes the adult brain: Predispositions and neuroplasticity. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 15, 630829. DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.630829

Papatzikis, E., & Rishony, H. (2022). What is music for neuroplasticity? Combined value on infant development and inclusion. In M. Efstratopoulou (Ed.). Rethinking Inclusion and Transformation in Special Education. (pp. 160-177). IGI Global. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-6684-4680-5.ch010

Papatzikis, E., Agapaki, M., Selvan, R. N., Pandey, V., & Zeba, F. (2023). Quality standards and recommendations for research in music and neuroplasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1520(1), 20-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14944

Puderbaugh, M., & Emmady, P. D. (2023). Neuroplasticity. StatPearls Publishing.

Putkinen, V., Tervaniemi, M., & Huotilainen, M. (2019). Musical playschool activities are linked to faster auditory development during preschool-age: a longitudinal ERP study. Scientific reports, 9(1), 11310.

Rădulescu, I., Drăgoi, A. M., Trifu, S. C., & Cristea, M. B. (2021). Neuroplasticity and depression: Rewiring the brain's networks through pharmacological therapy. Experimental and therapeutic medicine, 22(4), 1-8.

Vuust, P., Heggli, O. A., Friston, K. J., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2022). Music in the brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(5), 287-305. DOI:10.1038/s41583-022-00578-5

Ware, C., Dautricourt, S., Gonneaud, J., & Chételat, G. (2021). Does second language learning promote neuroplasticity in aging? a systematic review of cognitive and neuroimaging studies. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 13, 706672. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2021.706672

Wenger, E., & Kühn, S. (2021). Neuroplasticity. In Strobach, T. and Karbach, J. (eds.), Cognitive training: An overview of features and applications, (pp. 69-83). Springer Link. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_6

Weyandt, L. L., Clarkin, C. M., Holding, E. Z., May, S. E., Marraccini, M. E., Gudmundsdottir, B. G., & Thompson, L. (2020). Neuroplasticity in children and adolescents in response to treatment intervention: A systematic review of the literature. Clinical and Translational Neuroscience, 4(2), 21. https://doi.org/10.1177/2514183X20974231

Zhang, S. (2020). The positive influence of music on the human brain. Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 10(1), 95-104. DOI: 10.4236/jbbs.2020.101005